SOLUTION TO INTER-STATE CONFLICTS

1.      International law: This is a set of established rules, treaties, judicial decisions and practices that guarantee and prescribe ways in which a nation should behave towards each other. The international community isolates any country that acts contrary to this.

2.      International Court of Justice: This was established by the League of Nations in 1922 to settle disputes between the members states of the UN, for example the court resolved that the Ouzo strip belongs to Chad and this reduced the conflict between Libya and Chad in 1990. The also solved the following conflicts, Guinea-Bissau Vs Senegal over Maritime Boundary in 1991.

3.      Bilateral negotiations: The parties involved in a conflict use diplomatic channels to begin with. The discussions can be at a level of cabinet ministers or heads of states. If possible a third party is involved. At the end a peace Accord is signed to end a long continued quarrel among themselves.

4.      United Nations: This was formed to maintain international peace and security. Use of the UN peacekeeping forces helped in settlement of conflicts in the following countries, Israel, Former Yugoslavia, Nicaragua, Afghanistan, Western Sahara and Liberia.

5.      Disarmament:  This is manifested by the talks for the limitation of arms as it is seen in the SALT talks. Also UN peacekeeping forces help in disarming armed groups such as The Iran-Iraq military Observer group, Iraq-Kuwait wars.

6.      Regional organisations have been set up as part of their effort to settle conflicts between states for example Ecowas, SADC, and Comesa etc.

7.      Arbitration: When two countries are in conflict they choose a neutral party in another country to arbitrate their conflict.

8.      Non-Alignment: Developing countries refused to join either the eastern bloc or western in order to avoid the cold war conflict. They remained neutral through Non-aligned Movement.

9.      Planning coups and change of governments to bring up personality who may favour peace. Some leaders are just assassinated to end conflicts. President Kabila of Congo was killed to end the crisis

10. Some countries intervene and resort to outright military confrontation, in order to remove warmongers for example Tanzania in Uganda, Vietnam in Cambodia, Turkey in Cyprus, Soviet Union in Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan, India in Sri Lanka.

11. Military alliance: This is where countries sign agreements of military co-operation such that in case one is attacked, the rest can help. Members of the alliance rarely fight each other.

12. Appeasement policy: In this arrangement, a state that happens to be an aggressor is ignored a bit so that it can get tired and give up.

13. Diplomatic relations: Strengthening diplomatic relations through appointment of ambassadors and High commissioners.

EFFECTS OF INTERSTATE CONFLICTS

·        Wars break out leading to death of people.

·        Destruction of property

·        Emergence of refugee crisis

·        Famine breaks out

·        Poverty among people

·        Less foreign exchange earned

·        Foreign investors leave the country

·        High expenditure on defence

·        Inflation and scarcity of goods

·        Fall of some governments

·        Weaken regional organizations

·        Foreign aid and its effects

·        Breakdown of rule of law

·        Destroys capital and infrastructure

·        Creates unemployment

REFERENCES

Amin Idi Dada, The shaping of modern Uganda, Entebbe government Printer, 1976

CAUSES OF INTER-STATE CONFLICTS

1.      Lack of respect among African leader has created antagonism among states. Some leaders undertook others e.g Amin used to ridicule Nyerere (ref to the EAC question). Nyerere also looked at Amin as an imperialist stooge. This explains why the two clashed in 1978-79 in an armed conflict that saw Amin expelled from the throne.

2.      The expansionist policies of some leaders have brought them into conflict with other states. Some African countries harbour imperialistic motives e.g Gadaffi of Libya wanted to annex Ouzou strip of Chad thus conflicting with Chad. Amin wanted to annex parts of western Kenya hence the Uganda – Kenya conflict

3.      Neo colonialism is among the major causes of conflicts in Africa. Some countries have intervened in the affairs of others hence leading to conflicts. The use of Northern Uganda by Israel as a base against, the Sudan government (in the Obote 1 regime) led to the Uganda-Sudan conflict. Imperialist manipulations in developing countries.  For example South Africa and US have been stirring up trouble in Angola by supporting the UNITA rebels which Jonas Savimbi headed. USA, France and Britain have tried to promote their interests Africa by supporting puppet states in Africa to destabilise their fellow Africans. Uganda, Congo, Angola, Sudan, Rwanda, Liberia and Sierra Leone have gone through this.

4.      Boundary issues have also made conflict inevitable. In some countries there have been heated conflicts over the true boundary demarcations. E.g between Ethiopia and Eritrea in 1998. In 1963, between Morocco and Algeria over a frontier area of Algeria claimed by Morocco. Some countries try to extend their boundaries to neighbouring states. This caused conflicts between Uganda and Tanzania in 1978/9 when Amin declared that Uganda’s boundary was at river Kagera. More conflicts were between Nigeria and Benin, Zaire and Congo Brazzaville, Somalia and Ethiopia, Morocco and Algeria etc.

5.      Weak government policies are at times the factors behind the outbreak of interstate conflicts. Some unfair government policies in international opinion have made conflicts inevitable e,g the expulsion mid counter explusions of Ethiopians and Eritreans from one another's country after the tatter's secession.

6.      Detention of politicians of state by another e.g a conflict arose between Ivory coast and Guinea when the Guinea government had detained a senior Ivory cost official; in 1966, Ankrah’s government (Ghana) detained Guinea foreign minister and his 18 "man delegation hence the Ghana-Guinea conflict.

7.      The refugee question deserves mention. Refugee s have tried to use force to go back to their countries; therefore they have launched attacks from the host countries. E.g the Tutsi refugees by forming a movement "the cockroach" and attacking Rwanda in 1963 created a conflict between Rwanda and Burundi, talk about the 1990-1994 RPF invasion of Rwanda from Uganda and the subsequent conflicts between the two countries.

8.      Hatred, mistrust and suspicion among some states are largely to blame. Some states suspect others to be plotting against them. E.g Liberia implicated Ghana in the 1960 attempts to assassinate president Olympic, Ghana was implicated in the abortive coup that was carried out in Nigeria in August 1962. In DRC, the events leading directly to the war began with Laurent Kabila's decision taken on July 14th 1998 to replace his Rwandan chief of staff, James Kabarebe, with a native Congolese officer. Two weeks later, he announced that all Rwandese soldiers would have to leave the army and return home under suscipicion that they would organise a coup against him. Thereafter, when the Congolese rebels took up arms against his government, Kabila charged that his country was under attack by Rwanda This fuelled the crisis that eventually attracted other countries' intervention.

9.      The failure of conflicting heads of state to reconcile their differences has caused tension between states. This has made states to continue harbouring grudges against one another e.g in 1960, Nkrumah and Olympia had candid discussions but failed to resolve their differences. Olympic remained critical of Nkrumah's policies. Nyerere-refused to sit on the same table with Amin.

10. The weakness of the defunct OAU deserves comment with regard to the issue of interstate conflicts. The Organisation failed to maintain the charter that forbade member states from interfering in the affairs of other member states. [Refer to the weaknesses of the OAU]

11. Ideological differences also make instability inevitable. [Refer to the EAC - Kenya and Tanzania]

12. The desire for material wealth lays groundwork for conflicts. This has driven some states into conflicts with others especially over mineral resources e.g the Uganda - DRC conflict over the gold scandal; the late Kabila's minister of economy and oil, Victor Mpoyo, accused "top Ugandan officials" of smuggling timber, gold and diamonds in file Eastern parts of DRC; even Wamba dia Wamba condemned the UPDF for plundering Congo's natural resources. The Nigeria- Cameroon conflict over the Bakassi region believed to be having oil deposits is another example.

13. Search for power, prestige and glory among some leaders. Such ambitious leaders like Amin, Gaddafi and Siad Barre in their actions as liberators of the people caused interstate conflicts.

14. Finally significant is the issue of blackmarketeering. Smuggling of goods from one country to another and vice, versa causes conflicts e.g in 1961, there was large scale smuggling of cocoa in Ghana into Togo land because of the artificially low prices in Ghana. *Magendoism' caused conflicts between Uganda and Kenya to the effect that Kenya closed part of her border during Amin's time.

15. The desire of one country to control another. Independent states need to be free from external interference but when it happens, the army defends the people. This is a major cause of conflicts between Namibia and South Africa up to 1991.

16. Uncertainity over ownership of certain territories. There are also disputes over who should control certain stretches of land which two countries may claim for. For example the conflict between Israel and the neighbouring states such as, Egypt over the Sinai Peninsular, Morocco and Spain over a rocky island of Leila in the Mediterranean in July 2002 and then former Zaire and Angola over Cabinda.

17. Partition of countries by colonialists who made some ethnic groups to belong to more than one state. The colonialists partitioned Africa without considering the traditional boundaries of African ethnic groups, for example the Somalis were given to Ethiopia and Kenya, the Banyarwanda in Uganda and Zaire. In case their related ethnic groups are being subjected to harsh treatment, the neighbouring state may in the name of fighting for humanity be in conflict with another state. Certain states fight to claim for land which in history belonged to them.

18. Harbouring and support of rebels who destabilise neighbouring countries. This occurs when a country supports and harbours the dissidents and rebels to fight another. There are examples all over the world. The common ones are Uganda which accuses Sudan of supporting the Kony and the latter accuses Uganda of Garang’s SPLA. The same applies to Liberia and Sierra Leone, Uganda and Rwanda, and lastly Eritrea and Ethiopia.

19. Interference in the internal affairs of sister states. For example Libya interfered with Chad until they involved the international court of law in 1990. Prof. Lule accused Tanzania of interference when he was a president of Uganda in 1979. Democratic Republic of Congo also accused Uganda and Rwanda of interference in the internal matters of their country between 1998 and 2003.

20. Violation of human rights by a dictator. In countries where human rights have been violated such as South Africa during apartheid era, Central African Republic during the regime of Jean Bedel Bokassa (1966-79), Uganda during Amin’s rule, Zaire during Mobutu’s time. This provoked other countries in Africa to fight them.

21. Religious interference in the region. This is between Israel (Christian) and other neighbouring Islamic states like Syria, Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon. Israel is looked at as a threat to Islam leading to the wars right from 1948, 1954, 1967, 1970 and 1971. India and Pakistan are ever on tension because the former are Hindus while the latter are Moslems.

22. The forceful process of decolonization that required formation of Frontline states. Countries like Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Namibia got independence with assistance from other revolutionary countries. Fighting apartheid also involved the same force. This caused a conflict between those colonial masters and the Frontline states.

23. Stocking of powerful weapons by one state. Usually, states that amassed heavy military hardware with strong army try testing their weapons and the army in foreign wars. Amin claimed that he had a Long Range Bomber that could clear either Capetown or Dar es Salaam. Another example is when Iraq was attacked by coalition forces of US and Britain on 18^th March 2003 allegedly for having weapons of mass destruction.

24. Failure to control nomadic pastoralists along the common borders. Some of them traffic in firearms that may be a threat to neighbouring states. The Bahima Nomads sparked off a fight between Uganda and Tanzania.

25. Military Coups in most cases lead to state conflicts. Sometimes the new Army officers who take over power fail to be recognised by the neighbouring states. Ecowas states refused to recognise Paul Koroma when he deposed Ahamed Tejjan Kabar of Sierra Leone in 1997.

26. Struggle over control of natural resources. Some countries take advantage of the weaknesses of the neighbouring states in order to control and exploit the natural resources. Zaire wanted to control the oil rich Cabinda region from Angola, Libya also claimed for the uranium rich Ouzo strip of Chad. The need for oil control also forced Iraq to attack Kuwait.

27. The break away states tend to fight their mother states. They try to show that they are stronger than the former parent states. Examples are Ethiopia and Eritrea among others.

 

WARS BETWEEN INDEPENDENT AFRICAN STATES

The failure of pan-Africanism has had serious military implications for Africa. The problems of a decentralized state system without an overarching government, of which modern Europe has had so plentiful an experience since the sixteenth century - namely, interstate suspicion, conflict, war, and hence the necessity for military establishments have as a result begun to appear unavoidable in the similar state system of Africa.

It should hardly be surprising, therefore, that Kenya and Somalia should have been involved in a border conflict (1960-7), Uganda and Zaire in a shooting fray towards the end of the Congolese rebellion of 1964-5, Ethiopia and Somalia in a full-scale war in 1977-8, Uganda and Tanzania in the same in 1978-9 or Morocco and Mauritania in a fierce struggle to abort the creation of the Sahrawi Republic in the Western Sahara.

In the absence of overall moderation or of a strong and reliable sense of brotherhood (both of which pan-Africanism had once promised) African states have to fend for themselves individually for their security and defence in the event of disagreement among themselves.

The protracted problem of Somali irredentism raised its head in its most dangerous form to date in the Somali invasion of Ethiopia in 1977. The Ogaden War between Ethiopia and Somalia in 1977 and 1978 was a disaster for pan-Africanism and a serious reflection on the failure of the OAU to reduce the local nationalisms that afflict the relations between Africa's independent states.

RURAL URBAN MIGRATION IN AFRICA

·        This is the movement of people from rural to urban areas. It is caused by the push and pull factors.

·        Political insecurity in some rural areas.

·        The need to escape from the archaic social customs e.g. circumcision.

·        Some criminals escape from rural communities to avoid punishments.

·        Natural calamities like floods and famine may force people out of rural areas

·        Lack of land by some youths due to the unfair land tenure system.

·        Lack of market for agricultural produce.

·        Escape from local disputes

·        Seasonal changes

·        Outbreak of diseases in rural areas.

·        The search for jobs in towns e.g. by house girls and porters-

·        The need for improved social services such as education and health. These are poor in rural areas

·        The wage gap between the rural and urban areas.

·        The increasing freedom of the youths and lack of parental control over their children.

·        The desire to enjoy life in urban recreation centres.

·        The extended family system encourages the youths to join their relative in towns.

Effects

·        It leads to the creation of slums e.g. Bwaise in Kampala.

·        It leads to an increase in urban unemployment.

·        It leads to increased urban crime like pick pocketing, burglary and theft.

·        It leads immoral acts e.g. prostitution, drug abuse etc.

·        Quick spread of diseases due to overcrowding, floods and poor sanitation.

·        Increased pressure on land in swamps.

·        Rural underdevelopment since most energetic youths run to towns.

·        Famine and malnutrition in rural areas

·        An increase in the number of street children

·        Increased dependence burden

·        Increased government expenditure to provide social services and curb crime.

·        Leads to the break up of family and cultural ties and erosion of cultural values

·        It contributes to cheap labour in towns.

·        It leads to increased demand for food and other commodities in town

POPULATION EXPLOSION IN AFRICA

Population refers to the number of people living in a given area, country or continent. Causes of a large population are the following: Adherence to African traditions which regard children as a sign of wealth. High fertility rates of African women. Early marriages and early child bearing. Some religions discourage the use of artificial family planning methods e.g.  Catholicism. Low levels of education. The recognition and approval of the extended family system. Industrialization. Improved health services and nutrition. The increase in the rate of school dropouts. Refugee problems. Increased and unchecked immigration.

 Effects: It leads to increased pressure on land. It leads to unemployment problems.

It contributes to rural-urban migration. Development of slums. It leads to pressure on social infrastructure. It leads to increased dependence on foreign aid. It leads to an increased rate of dependants. It leads to increased crime rate. It leads to the over exploitation of natural resources. It contributes to deterioration in the standards of living. It leads to land fragmentation. It contributes to environmental degradation. It leads to urbanization. It contributes to economic development by providing market for goods. It provides the required labour force for agricultural and industrial growth.

THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY FOR WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

At the time the EAC was breaking up, a similar organization for West Africa was being created. In May 1975 at a conference in Lagos plans were approved to set up an Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The Treaty establishing ECOWAS was signed at Lome in November 1976 by the heads of alt 15 states of West Africa. ECOWAS member-states pledged themselves to set up a customs union over 15 years by progressive reduction of import duties. The whole of West Africa will then become a free trade area, with free movement also of people, services and capital. Industrial development will be co-ordinated in order to avoid duplication of resources and capital. Agricultural policies will be gradually harmonized and joint agricultural projects between member-states will be undertaken, notably in marketing research and food-processing. The first two years of ECOWAS's existence were devoted to setting up administration and gathering information.

The sixteen West African Heads of State signed a revised Treaty on July 24, 1993. The revised Treaty reflects West Africa's regional cooperation experiences over the preceding fifteen years and takes into account the exigencies of continental integration as envisaged in the Treaty of the African Economic Community.

The following 16 member countries make up the Ecowas: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo

 AIMS.      

Those who established it had the following aims:

·        To promote cooperation in economic development among member states.

·        To end custom duties and other import barriers between member states.

·        To eliminate the difference in the level of economic development between member states.

·        To abolish all obstacles for the movement of all people, services and capital among member states.

·        To harmonize the industrial policies of member states including agricultural sector.

·        To promote joint development projects such as hydroelectric power between member states.

·        To raise the standard of living among the people of member states.

·        To establish a common external custom tariff.

STRUCTURE OF ECOWAS

The organizational structure of ECOWAS revolves around the Conference of Heads of State and Government, Council of Ministers, Tribunal, Executive Secretariat, Specialized Commissions and the Fund for Cooperation, Compensation and Development. The Conference is the supreme authority of the organization. It meets once a year. Its chairman is drawn from the member states in turn.

Supreme authority: Is composed of heads of state of member countries.  They meet twice a year and the chairmanship rotates around in the various heads of states.

Council of ministers: It is composed of two representatives from each country and it meets twice a year.

The Secretariat: The Secretariat is headed by an Executive Secretary who is elected for a four-year term, which may be renewed once only. There are five commissions namely, Trade, Customs, Immigration, Monetary and Payments; Industry, Agriculture and Natural Resources; Transport, Communications and Energy; Social and Cultural Affairs; and Administration and Finance. Its headquarters are in Lagos

Based in Togo, the Fund is administered by a Board of Directors. The chief executive is the Managing Director who holds office for a renewable term of four years. In 1988 agreements were reached with the African Development Bank and the Islamic Development Bank on the co- financing of projects and joint training of staff, and it was agreed that the Fund should be opened to non-regional participants.

Community tribunal: This organ ensures that the laws of ECOWAS are observed.  It also administers justice between member states i.e settles disputes.

Specialized commissions: The economic community has got four commissions which include the following: Industry, agriculture and natural resources; transport, technology and energy; culture and social affairs; and lastly trade and customs, immigrations, monetary and control.

There is also a Committee of Governors of West African Central Banks, which has been coordinating the implementation of the ECOWAS monetary program. The Treaty also provides for a West African Parliament and an Economic and Social Council.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF ECOWAS

·        Creating the use of local inputs in industries in the region.

·        Reducing foreign ownership of enterprises.

·        Encouraging specialization along lines of comparative advantage.

·        Creation of large markets that attract foreign investments.

·        Enabling member states to benefit from cheaply run common services like airlines, telecommunication and transport.

·        There is easy internal lending because of the trustworthiness.

·        Enabling the free mobility of factors of production such as labour and capital within the region.

·        Landlocked countries have got free access to the sea

·        Encouraging competition of different firms from different states, which help in neutralizing the position of monopolistic firms.

·        Removal of trade barriers has promoted trade.

·        Getting arid of colonial boundaries to suit the political interests of people from West Africa.

·        Natural hazards that affect the area are jointly addressed

·        These states have even benefited politically because they can be heard more in international affairs. This is due to their unified voice for example OAU and the UN gave the group a Mandate to send to Liberia their peacekeeping force - Ecomog (Economic Commission and Monitoring Group) to monitor the peace process for the war torn Liberia.  They left when Liberia settled down with elected democratic government.

·        Its peacekeeping force, the ECOMOG managed to overthrow the military junta under Koroma and reinstated Tijan Kaba as a President of Sierra Leone who was democratically elected.

·        ECOWAS aims to promote co-operation and development in economic, social and cultural activity, particularly in the fields for which specialised commissions are appointed to raise the standard of living of the people of the member countries.

·        Trade and Monetary Union: Elimination of tariffs and other obstructions to trade among member states, and the establishment of a common external tariff are the major concern in this realm.

·        Travel, Transport and Communications: Free circulation of the region's citizens and the rights of residence and establishment of commercial enterprises are the elements of the Protocol signed in 1979.

·        Economic Development: A private regional investment bank, Ecobank Transnational Inc based in Lome, Togo is in operation to harness the investment potentials of the region. The Industrial forum sponsored by the organization is held every two years to promote regional industrial investment.

·        Defence: A protocol of non-aggression was signed at the third Conference of the Heads of State and Government. In 1990 a Standing Mediation Committee was formed to mediate in disputes between member states.

·        Energy: A work programme for energy development, involving a regional analysis of energy issues and plans for increasing efficiency and finding an alternative source was planned in 1981. The creation of an Energy Resources Development Fund was approved in 1982. Other plans in this area include a regional information centre and database to disseminate information on renewable energy resources and the construction of an ECOWAS refinery to supply refined petroleum products for the region.

·        Agriculture: An Agricultural Development Strategy was adopted in 1982, aiming at sub-regional self-sufficiency by the year 2000. The strategy included plans for selecting seeds and cattle species, and called for solidarity among member states during international commodity negotiations. Seven seed selection and multiplication centres and eight livestock-breeding centres were designated in 1984. 

·        Social Programmes: Four organizations have been established within ECOWAS by the Executive Secretariat: the Organization of Trade Unions of West Africa, the West African Youth Association, the West African Universities Association and the West African Women's Association. The West African Football Union coordinates the region's soccer activities. Regional sports competition is held annually. A health organization was formed in 1989 by member states.

·        Member States have committed themselves to the coordination and harmonization of national economic and financial policies in order to enhance the effectiveness of national structural adjustment and economic reform programs. The monetary program adopted by the Community has the medium-term objectives of achieving regional convertibility of the nine national currencies and, in the longer term, the creation of a single monetary zone.

·        Meanwhile, an ECOWAS travelers check was launched in October 1998 to facilitate regional travel and commercial transactions.

·        In addition to the above, the Community has been implementing such sectoral programs as the inter-connection of national electric grids and regional pipeline for the distribution of natural gas, Community seed production and cattle breeding centers, agricultural research program, regional master plan for industrial development, coordination of desertification control programs, rural water supply schemes, cooperation in health matters, establishment of equivalence for degrees and diplomas.

·        In the Treaty, particular emphasis has been placed on promoting the involvement and participation of the private sector and the general public in the development and integration of the economies of the region. Already, the Community has encouraged the establishment and functioning of a privately-owned regional commercial bank (ECOBANK), Federation of West African Manufacturers Associations, Federation of West African Chambers of Commerce, West African Journalists Association, West African Youth Union, West African Women's Association, West African Road Transporters Union, etc.

WEAKNESSES OF ECOWAS

·        ECOWAS has failed to institute a common monetary unit for the member countries.

·        ECOWAS has failed to remove high tariffs between member countries especially in the trade and customs and excise departments among member nations.

·        Free movement of labour and other factors of production like capital is still far from reach.

·        The standard of living among the citizens of the member states is still very low especially those located in dry Savannah.

·        Failure to get rid of foreign ownership of large business companies.

·        Differences in ideological and colonial backgrounds of the member states.  After independence, some countries adopted socialism; others took capitalism.  Some countries are attached to the Anglophone, Francaphone while others are Lusophone.

·        Failure for member countries to provide agreed financial contributions to the organization’ secretariat in Lagos.

·        Small and poor states fear the dominance of Nigeria especially with the influence of ECOMOG.

·        Most of the industries and other enterprises are owned by foreigners such as the British, Americans and Japanese who put more influence on the economy.

·        Ecowas failed to solve the problem of civil wars and political conflicts among member countries. Sierra Leone has been unstable for long and yet the problem comes from Liberia.

·        Total failure to implement most of the projects identified. Most of the declarations stop on paper with any implementation.

PROBLEMS OF ECOWAS:

§  Less efficient use of resources because member states produce similar goods and this affects trade.

§  Different levels of Education among member states.

§  Language differences hence communication within the union is not uniform- English, French and Portuguese are the official languages used by the various member states.

§  Different levels of development making the richer members to benefit more inform of new industries and more jobs and incomes.

§  Industrially weak members pay high prices for poor quality goods origination from other member states.

§  Loss of Tax Revenue by member states because of the Free trade Area.

§  Member states which are economically stronger want to dominate the union eg Nigeria.

§  Some member states ignore the union economic objectives in their economic planning.

§  Malicious foreign interference on Ecowas by developed countries since such unions usually challenge them and therefore imitate them.

§  Member countries have different colonial backgrounds.  Former French colonies belong to the French community while the former British Common wealth membership in these organisations affects the operations of Ecowas on trade.

§  Member countries are too many for an effective economic union.

§  Member countries are far from each other and this affects trade between them.

§  Existence of other intergovernmental organisations in the region.

§  Failure by member states to provide the agreed financial contributions for running the union hampers. It’s economic development programs.

§  Lack of a common currency.

§  Ideological / personal differences among leaders eg religion